Oil Shale

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Oil shale is a fine-grained sedimentary rock, containing significant amounts of kerogen (a solid mixture of organic chemical compounds), from which liquid hydrocarbons can be manufactured. The name oil shale is something of a misnomer as the rock is not necessarily a shale and the hydrocarbon in it is not truly petroleum.WEC, p. 74 Deposition (geology) of oil shale are located around the world, including major deposits in the United States. Global deposits are estimated as equivalent to 2.9–3.3 trillion (2.9–3.3 x 1012) barrels of recoverable oil.WEC, p. 81-82{{cite paper]| date = February 2006| url = http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/pdf/0383(2006).pdf| format = PDF| accessdate = 2007-06-22-->{{cite paper| last = Andrews | first = Anthony| title = Oil Shale: History, Incentives, and Policy| publisher = Congressional Research Service| date = 2006-04-13| date = April 2006| url = http://www.fossil.energy.gov/programs/reserves/npr/NSURM_Documentation.pdf| format = PDF| accessdate = 2007-07-09-->

The kerogen in oil shale can be converted to [synthetic crude oil through the chemical process of pyrolysis. When heated to a sufficiently high temperature a vapor is driven off which can be distillation (retorted) to Yield (chemistry) a petroleum-like shale oil—a form of non-conventional oil—and combustible shale gas (shale gas can also refer to gas occurring naturally in shales). Oil shale can also be combustion directly as a low-grade fuel for power generation and heating purposes, and be used as a raw material in the chemical and construction materials industries.{{Cite paper| last =Dyni | first =John R.| title =Geology and resources of some world oil-shale deposits. Scientific Investigations Report 2005–5294| publisher = U.S. Department of the Interior. U.S. Geological Survey| year = 2006| url = http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2005/5294/pdf/sir5294_508.pdf| format=PDF| accessdate =2007-07-09-->

Oil shale has gained attention as an energy resource as the price of conventional sources of petroleum has risen, and as a way to secure independence from external suppliers of energy.{{Cite paper| title =Energy Security of Estonia| publisher = Estonian Foreign Policy Institute| date = September 2006| url = http://www.evi.ee/lib/Security.pdf| format=PDF| accessdate =2007-10-20-->{{Cite web| title = Oil Shale Activities| publisher = United States Department of Energy| url = http://www.fossil.energy.gov/programs/reserves/npr/NPR_Oil_Shale_Program.html| accessdate =2007-10-20-->

Geology oil shale (kukersite), northern Estonia.Oil shale is an organic-rich sedimentary rock, differentiated from Bituminous rocks (tar sands and petroleum reservoir rocks), humic acid coals and carbonaceous shale. Oil shales vary considerably in mineralogical and chemical composition. Different types of oil shales vary in mineral content, type of kerogen, age, and depositional history, including the organisms from which they were derived.{{Cite journal]-rich shale, Silicon dioxide shale and Cannel coal shale.{{Cite book| last = Lee | first = Sunggyu| title = Oil Shale Technology| publisher = CRC Press| pages = 10| year = 1990| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=N0wMCusO6yIC&pg=PA253&lpg=PA253&dq=%22ex+situ%22+oil+shale&source=web&ots=RUeSKpiSxN&sig=pvW6H4fqTIb-cHHdVuO57pozdeg#PPP1,M1| id = ISBN 0849346150| accessdate = 2007-07-09 -->Oil shales are also classified according to their kerogen type, which is a function of the hydrogen, carbon and oxygen content of the organic matter. Oil shales are also classified as Terrestrial ecoregion, lacustrine, or Marine (ocean) to distinguish based upon the environment where the initial biomass was deposited. In oil shales, the kerogen has not yet been naturally cooked into petroleum by heat and pressure.{{Cite web]| url=http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/gsl/null/lang/en/page874.html| accessdate =2007-10-20-->

Reserves in Ordovician oil shale (kukersite), northern Estonia.Although oil shale resources occur in many countries, only 33 countries possess deposits of possible economic value. {{Cite journal| last = Brendow | first = K.| title = Global oil shale issues and perspectives. Synthesis of the Symposium on Oil Shale. 18-19 November, Tallinn| journal =Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal| publisher = Estonian Academy Publishers| volume =20| issue =1| pages =81-92| year = 2003| url=http://www.kirj.ee/oilshale/9_brendow_1_03.pdf| format = PDF| id = ISSN 0208-189X| accessdate =2007-07-21-->{{Cite journal| last =Qian | first =Jialin| last2 =Wang | first2 =Jianqiu| last3 =Li | first3 =Shuyuan| title =Oil Shale Development in China| journal =Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal| publisher = Estonian Academy Publishers| volume =20| issue =3| pages =356-359| year =2003| url=http://www.kirj.ee/oilshale/9_qian_2003_3s.pdf| format = PDF| id = ISSN 0208-189X| accessdate =2007-06-16--> The largest deposits in the world are found in the United States in the Green River (Utah), which covers portions of Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming; about 70 % of this resource is located on federally-owned or managed land.{{Cite web]| accessdate = 2007-10-20-->Total world resources of oil shale are estimated at 411 gigatons (411 x 109 tonnes), which is enough to yield 2.9 to 3.3 trillion (2.9 to 3.3 x 1012) U.S. barrels. Among those, the United State accounts for 62 % of world resources, and USA, Russia and Brazil together account for 86 % in terms of shale oil content. These figures are considered tentative, as several deposits have not yet been explored.WEC, p.77

History s) in Estonia (Estonia deposit), Russia (Leningrad and Kashpir deposits), United Kingdom (Scotland, Lothians), Brazil (Iratí Formation), China (Maoming and Fushun deposits), and Germany (Dotternhausen) from 1880 to 2000.Oil shale has been in use since ancient times, since it will generally burn without any processing. However, modern industrial oil shale mining began in 1837 in Autun, France, followed by Scotland, Germany, and several other countries.{{Cite paper] was constructed in the United States in 1855.The oil shale industry started growing just before World War I, but was abandoned in most countries after World War II because of high processing costs and the availability of cheaper petroleum.{{Cite paper]| place = Amman, Jordan| url = http://www.sdnp.jo/International_Oil_Conference/rtos-A106.pdf| format = PDF| accessdate = 2007-06-29-->Following the 1973 oil crisis, world production of oil shale reached a peak of 46 million tonnes in 1980 before falling to about 16 million tonnes in 2000, due to competition from conventional petroleum, then at prices under US$30/barrel.{{cite paper]| url = http://www.llnl.gov/tid/lof/documents/pdf/243505.pdf| format = PDF| id = UCRL-ID-155045| accessdate = 2007-06-28--> The global oil shale industry began to revive in the mid-1990s. In 2003, an oil shale development program was restarted in the United States, and a commercial leasing program for oil shale and tar sand was introduced in 2005.{{cite web]| accessdate=2007-07-10-->{{cite web| publisher= Oil Shale and Tar Sands Leasing Programmatic EIS Information Center| url= http://ostseis.anl.gov/eis/what/index.cfm| title = What's in the Oil Shale and Tar Sands Leasing Programmatic EIS| accessdate=2007-07-10-->

Extraction and processing Oil shale is usually mined and then transported to be processed elsewhere (ex situ), although several newer technologies extract its useful components underground (in situ).{{Cite paper| last = Burnham | first = Alan K.| last2 = McConaghy | first2 = James R.| title = Comparison of the Acceptability of Various Oil Shale Processes| date = 2006-10-16 are [open pit mining and strip mining, while underground mining of oil shale employs the Room and pillar.{{Cite paper| last = Bartis | first = James T.| last2 =LaTourrette | first2 = Tom| last3 = Dixon | first3 =Lloyd| last4 = Peterson | first4 =D.J.| last5 = Cecchine | first5 = Gary| title = Oil Shale Development in the United States. Prospects and Policy Issues. Prepared for the National Energy Technology Laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy| publisher = RAND| date = 2005| url = http://www.netl.doe.gov/energy-analyses/pubs/Oil%20Shale%20Development%20in%20the%20United%20States%20-%20RAND%20August%20200.pdf| format=PDF| id = ISBN 978-0-8330-3848-7| accessdate =2007-06-29-->

After access to the shale is gained, either on-site or off-site, its kerogen is converted to synthetic crude and shale gas through the chemical process of pyrolysis. Most conversion technologies involve heating shale in the absence of oxygen to a temperature at which kerogen is decomposed (pyrolysed) into gas, condensable oil, and a solid residue. Other technologies are based on the solvent processes of reactive fluids.{{Cite journal| last = Koel | first = Mihkel| title = Estonian oil shale| journal =Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal| publisher = Estonian Academy Publishers| issue = Extra| year = 1999| url=http://www.kirj.ee/oilshale/Est-OS.htm| id = ISSN 0208-189X| accessdate =2007-07-21-->

Industry Currently, oil shale is used industrially in Brazil, China, Estonia and to some extent in Germany, Israel, and Russia. At the beginning of the 21st century, several additional countries were assessing their reserves or had built experimental production plants, while others had phased out their oil shale industry.WEC, p.75-77Oil shales are used for oil production in Estonia, Brazil, and China, for power generation in Estonia, China, Israel, and Germany, for cement production in Estonia, Germany, and China, and by chemical industries in Estonia and Russia.WEC, p.73{{Cite paper]| place = Amman, Jordan]. Directorate-General for Research| date = 2005| url = http://ec.europa.eu/research/energy/pdf/synergy_vol2_en.pdf| format= PDF| id = EUR 21614/2| accessdate =2007-06-29-->

Applications and products Oil shale can be used as a fuel for thermal power plants, where, like coal, it is burned to drive steam turbines. Some of the larger Fossil fuel power plants are located in Estonia, which has an installed capacity of 2,967 megawatts (MW), Israel (12.5 MW), China (12 MW), and Germany (9.9 MW).{{Cite paper], have shut down their oil shale-fired power plants, others, including Russia, have switched to other fuel sources. Jordan and Egypt are planning to construct new oil shale-fired power plants, while Canada and Turkey plan to burn oil shale along with coal for power generation.{{Cite paper], cement, bricks, construction and decorative blocks, soil additives, fertilizers, rock wool insulation, glass, and pharmaceutical products. However, oil shale use for production of these items is still small or only in its experimental stages. Some oil shales yield sulfur, ammonia, alumina, soda ash, uranium, and List of minerals N-R (complete)#nahcolite as shale oil extraction byproducts. Between 1946 and 1952, a marine type of Basidiolichen shale was used for uranium production in Sillamäe, Estonia, and between 1950 and 1989 alum shale was used in Sweden for the same purposes.Another of its proposed uses is as a substitute for natural gas, but at current price levels this is not economical.{{Citation]| url = http://www.ene.ttu.ee/maeinstituut/mgis/mapofhistory.htm| accessdate = 2007-07-21-->

Economics in US dollars, 2005-2007 (not adjusted for inflation).The various attempts to develop the world's oil shale deposits, over a period of over 150 years, have experienced successes when the cost of shale oil production in a given region was less than the price of crude oil or its other substitutes.{{cite paper| author = Robert Rapier| title = Oil Shale Development Imminent| publisher = R-Squared Energy Blog| date = 2006-06-12, a surface retorting complex (comprising a mine, retorting plant, upgrading plant, supporting utilities, and spent shale reclamation) is unlikely to be profitable in the United States until crude oil prices range between US$70 to US$95 per barrel (in 2005 dollars).Once commercial plants are in operation and experience-based learning takes place, costs are expected to decline in 12 years to US$35–US$48 per barrel. After production of 1,000 million barrels, costs are estimated to decline further to US$30 – US$40 per barrel.{{cite paper| publisher = [European Parliament has announced that its in-situ extraction technology in [Colorado could be competitive at prices over US$30 per barrel, while other technologies at full-scale production assert profitability at oil prices even lower than US$20 per barrel.{{cite web]| accessdate=2007-06-02-->{{Cite journal| last = Schmidt | first = S. J.| title = New directions for shale oil:path to a secure new oil supply well into this century: on the example of Australia| journal =Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal| publisher = Estonian Academy Publishers| volume =20| issue =3| pages = 333-346| year = 2003| url = http://www.kirj.ee/oilshale/7_schmidt_2003_3s.pdf| format = PDF| id = ISSN 0208-189X| accessdate = 2007-06-02-->{{cite web| publisher= United Press International| author= Leah Krauss| url= http://www.upi.com/Energy/view.php?StoryID=20061107-070924-5161r| title = Analysis: Israel sees shale replacing oil| date=2006-11-07 | place = Amman, Jordan| url = http://www.sdnp.jo/International_Oil_Conference/rtos-A114.pdf| format = PDF| accessdate = 2007-06-29-->

A critical measure of the viability of oil shale as an energy source is the ratio of the energy produced by the shale to the energy used in its mining and processing, a ratio known as "Energy Returned on Energy Invested" ([EROEI). A 1984 study estimated the EROEI of the various known oil shale deposits as varying between 0.7-13.3.{{Cite journal]| publisher = American Association for the Advancement of Science| volume = 225| issue = 4665| pages = 890-897| date = [1984-08-31.{{cite paper| title = Oil Shale Test Project. Oil Shale Research and Development Project| publisher = Shell Frontier Oil and Gas Inc.| date = [2006-02-15| accessdate=2007-08-27-->An additional economic consideration is the water needed in the oil shale retorting process, which may pose a problem in areas with water scarcity.

Environmental considerations The oil shale industry can have a negative impact on the surrounding environments, if the risks associated with it are not managed correctly. environmentalism concerns raised over the extraction of shale oil have caused the oil shale industry in some countries to come to a halt.{{cite web| url=http://www.greenpeace.org/australia/news-and-events/media/releases/climate-change/climate-changing-shale-oil-ind| title=Climate-changing shale oil industry stopped| author=Greenpeace Australia Pacific| date=2005-03-03 in [Australia resulted in its being put on hold in 2004.{{cite web]| accessdate=2007-10-20-->

Surface-mining of oil shale deposits has the same environmental impacts as those of open-pit mining. In addition, combustion and thermal processing generate waste material, and the atmospheric emissions include carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas. Experimental in-situ conversion processes and carbon capture and storage technologies may reduce some of these concerns in the future, but they may at the same time may cause other problems, including groundwater pollution.{{cite paper]| publisher=Association for the Study of Peak Oil & Gas - USA| date= 2006| accessdate=2007-06-28 -->

See also

Abiogenic petroleum origin
Bituminous coal
Core research center
Future energy development
Green River Basin
Mahogany research project
Mitigation of peak oil
Non-conventional oil
Oil reserves
Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program
Tar sands
World energy resources and consumption

Footnotes References

{{cite book

Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal. Estonian Academy Publishers. ISSN 0208-189X
Selected online oil shale publications by the U.S. Geological Survey
Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry article on oil shale (requires registration). Retrieved on 2007-08-04
{{cite book

{{cite web

27th Oil Shale Symposium
{{cite web

{{cite web

| title = Statement Of Thomas Lonnie Assistant Director for Minerals, Realty & Resource Protection, Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Department of the Interior before the Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee. Oversight Hearing on Oil Shale Development Efforts| date = 2005-04-12[da:Olieskifer de:Ölschiefer et:Põlevkivies:Pizarra bituminosafr:Schiste bitumineuxit:Scisti bituminosihe:פצלי שמןnl:Oil Shalepl:Łupki bitumicznept:Xisto betuminosoru:Горючий сланецfi:Öljyliuske sv:Oljeskifferuk:Горючі сланці

Oil shale is a fine-grained sedimentary rock, containing significant amounts of kerogen (a solid mixture of organic chemical compounds), from which liquid hydrocarbons can be manufactured. The name oil shale is something of a misnomer as the rock is not necessarily a shale and the hydrocarbon in it is not truly petroleum.WEC, p. 74 Deposition (geology) of oil shale are located around the world, including major deposits in the United States. Global deposits are estimated as equivalent to 2.9–3.3 trillion (2.9–3.3 x 1012) barrels of recoverable oil.WEC, p. 81-82{{cite paper]| date = February 2006| url = http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/pdf/0383(2006).pdf| format = PDF| accessdate = 2007-06-22-->{{cite paper| last = Andrews | first = Anthony| title = Oil Shale: History, Incentives, and Policy| publisher = Congressional Research Service| date = 2006-04-13| date = April 2006| url = http://www.fossil.energy.gov/programs/reserves/npr/NSURM_Documentation.pdf| format = PDF| accessdate = 2007-07-09-->

The kerogen in oil shale can be converted to [synthetic crude oil through the chemical process of pyrolysis. When heated to a sufficiently high temperature a vapor is driven off which can be distillation (retorted) to Yield (chemistry) a petroleum-like shale oil—a form of non-conventional oil—and combustible shale gas (shale gas can also refer to gas occurring naturally in shales). Oil shale can also be combustion directly as a low-grade fuel for power generation and heating purposes, and be used as a raw material in the chemical and construction materials industries.{{Cite paper| last =Dyni | first =John R.| title =Geology and resources of some world oil-shale deposits. Scientific Investigations Report 2005–5294| publisher = U.S. Department of the Interior. U.S. Geological Survey| year = 2006| url = http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2005/5294/pdf/sir5294_508.pdf| format=PDF| accessdate =2007-07-09-->

Oil shale has gained attention as an energy resource as the price of conventional sources of petroleum has risen, and as a way to secure independence from external suppliers of energy.{{Cite paper| title =Energy Security of Estonia| publisher = Estonian Foreign Policy Institute| date = September 2006| url = http://www.evi.ee/lib/Security.pdf| format=PDF| accessdate =2007-10-20-->{{Cite web| title = Oil Shale Activities| publisher = United States Department of Energy| url = http://www.fossil.energy.gov/programs/reserves/npr/NPR_Oil_Shale_Program.html| accessdate =2007-10-20-->

Geology oil shale (kukersite), northern Estonia.Oil shale is an organic-rich sedimentary rock, differentiated from Bituminous rocks (tar sands and petroleum reservoir rocks), humic acid coals and carbonaceous shale. Oil shales vary considerably in mineralogical and chemical composition. Different types of oil shales vary in mineral content, type of kerogen, age, and depositional history, including the organisms from which they were derived.{{Cite journal]-rich shale, Silicon dioxide shale and Cannel coal shale.{{Cite book| last = Lee | first = Sunggyu| title = Oil Shale Technology| publisher = CRC Press| pages = 10| year = 1990| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=N0wMCusO6yIC&pg=PA253&lpg=PA253&dq=%22ex+situ%22+oil+shale&source=web&ots=RUeSKpiSxN&sig=pvW6H4fqTIb-cHHdVuO57pozdeg#PPP1,M1| id = ISBN 0849346150| accessdate = 2007-07-09 -->Oil shales are also classified according to their kerogen type, which is a function of the hydrogen, carbon and oxygen content of the organic matter. Oil shales are also classified as Terrestrial ecoregion, lacustrine, or Marine (ocean) to distinguish based upon the environment where the initial biomass was deposited. In oil shales, the kerogen has not yet been naturally cooked into petroleum by heat and pressure.{{Cite web]| url=http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/gsl/null/lang/en/page874.html| accessdate =2007-10-20-->

Reserves in Ordovician oil shale (kukersite), northern Estonia.Although oil shale resources occur in many countries, only 33 countries possess deposits of possible economic value. {{Cite journal| last = Brendow | first = K.| title = Global oil shale issues and perspectives. Synthesis of the Symposium on Oil Shale. 18-19 November, Tallinn| journal =Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal| publisher = Estonian Academy Publishers| volume =20| issue =1| pages =81-92| year = 2003| url=http://www.kirj.ee/oilshale/9_brendow_1_03.pdf| format = PDF| id = ISSN 0208-189X| accessdate =2007-07-21-->{{Cite journal| last =Qian | first =Jialin| last2 =Wang | first2 =Jianqiu| last3 =Li | first3 =Shuyuan| title =Oil Shale Development in China| journal =Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal| publisher = Estonian Academy Publishers| volume =20| issue =3| pages =356-359| year =2003| url=http://www.kirj.ee/oilshale/9_qian_2003_3s.pdf| format = PDF| id = ISSN 0208-189X| accessdate =2007-06-16--> The largest deposits in the world are found in the United States in the Green River (Utah), which covers portions of Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming; about 70 % of this resource is located on federally-owned or managed land.{{Cite web]| accessdate = 2007-10-20-->Total world resources of oil shale are estimated at 411 gigatons (411 x 109 tonnes), which is enough to yield 2.9 to 3.3 trillion (2.9 to 3.3 x 1012) U.S. barrels. Among those, the United State accounts for 62 % of world resources, and USA, Russia and Brazil together account for 86 % in terms of shale oil content. These figures are considered tentative, as several deposits have not yet been explored.WEC, p.77

History s) in Estonia (Estonia deposit), Russia (Leningrad and Kashpir deposits), United Kingdom (Scotland, Lothians), Brazil (Iratí Formation), China (Maoming and Fushun deposits), and Germany (Dotternhausen) from 1880 to 2000.Oil shale has been in use since ancient times, since it will generally burn without any processing. However, modern industrial oil shale mining began in 1837 in Autun, France, followed by Scotland, Germany, and several other countries.{{Cite paper] was constructed in the United States in 1855.The oil shale industry started growing just before World War I, but was abandoned in most countries after World War II because of high processing costs and the availability of cheaper petroleum.{{Cite paper]| place = Amman, Jordan| url = http://www.sdnp.jo/International_Oil_Conference/rtos-A106.pdf| format = PDF| accessdate = 2007-06-29-->Following the 1973 oil crisis, world production of oil shale reached a peak of 46 million tonnes in 1980 before falling to about 16 million tonnes in 2000, due to competition from conventional petroleum, then at prices under US$30/barrel.{{cite paper]| url = http://www.llnl.gov/tid/lof/documents/pdf/243505.pdf| format = PDF| id = UCRL-ID-155045| accessdate = 2007-06-28--> The global oil shale industry began to revive in the mid-1990s. In 2003, an oil shale development program was restarted in the United States, and a commercial leasing program for oil shale and tar sand was introduced in 2005.{{cite web]| accessdate=2007-07-10-->{{cite web| publisher= Oil Shale and Tar Sands Leasing Programmatic EIS Information Center| url= http://ostseis.anl.gov/eis/what/index.cfm| title = What's in the Oil Shale and Tar Sands Leasing Programmatic EIS| accessdate=2007-07-10-->

Extraction and processing Oil shale is usually mined and then transported to be processed elsewhere (ex situ), although several newer technologies extract its useful components underground (in situ).{{Cite paper| last = Burnham | first = Alan K.| last2 = McConaghy | first2 = James R.| title = Comparison of the Acceptability of Various Oil Shale Processes| date = 2006-10-16 are [open pit mining and strip mining, while underground mining of oil shale employs the Room and pillar.{{Cite paper| last = Bartis | first = James T.| last2 =LaTourrette | first2 = Tom| last3 = Dixon | first3 =Lloyd| last4 = Peterson | first4 =D.J.| last5 = Cecchine | first5 = Gary| title = Oil Shale Development in the United States. Prospects and Policy Issues. Prepared for the National Energy Technology Laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy| publisher = RAND| date = 2005| url = http://www.netl.doe.gov/energy-analyses/pubs/Oil%20Shale%20Development%20in%20the%20United%20States%20-%20RAND%20August%20200.pdf| format=PDF| id = ISBN 978-0-8330-3848-7| accessdate =2007-06-29-->

After access to the shale is gained, either on-site or off-site, its kerogen is converted to synthetic crude and shale gas through the chemical process of pyrolysis. Most conversion technologies involve heating shale in the absence of oxygen to a temperature at which kerogen is decomposed (pyrolysed) into gas, condensable oil, and a solid residue. Other technologies are based on the solvent processes of reactive fluids.{{Cite journal| last = Koel | first = Mihkel| title = Estonian oil shale| journal =Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal| publisher = Estonian Academy Publishers| issue = Extra| year = 1999| url=http://www.kirj.ee/oilshale/Est-OS.htm| id = ISSN 0208-189X| accessdate =2007-07-21-->

Industry Currently, oil shale is used industrially in Brazil, China, Estonia and to some extent in Germany, Israel, and Russia. At the beginning of the 21st century, several additional countries were assessing their reserves or had built experimental production plants, while others had phased out their oil shale industry.WEC, p.75-77Oil shales are used for oil production in Estonia, Brazil, and China, for power generation in Estonia, China, Israel, and Germany, for cement production in Estonia, Germany, and China, and by chemical industries in Estonia and Russia.WEC, p.73{{Cite paper]| place = Amman, Jordan]. Directorate-General for Research| date = 2005| url = http://ec.europa.eu/research/energy/pdf/synergy_vol2_en.pdf| format= PDF| id = EUR 21614/2| accessdate =2007-06-29-->

Applications and products Oil shale can be used as a fuel for thermal power plants, where, like coal, it is burned to drive steam turbines. Some of the larger Fossil fuel power plants are located in Estonia, which has an installed capacity of 2,967 megawatts (MW), Israel (12.5 MW), China (12 MW), and Germany (9.9 MW).{{Cite paper], have shut down their oil shale-fired power plants, others, including Russia, have switched to other fuel sources. Jordan and Egypt are planning to construct new oil shale-fired power plants, while Canada and Turkey plan to burn oil shale along with coal for power generation.{{Cite paper], cement, bricks, construction and decorative blocks, soil additives, fertilizers, rock wool insulation, glass, and pharmaceutical products. However, oil shale use for production of these items is still small or only in its experimental stages. Some oil shales yield sulfur, ammonia, alumina, soda ash, uranium, and List of minerals N-R (complete)#nahcolite as shale oil extraction byproducts. Between 1946 and 1952, a marine type of Basidiolichen shale was used for uranium production in Sillamäe, Estonia, and between 1950 and 1989 alum shale was used in Sweden for the same purposes.Another of its proposed uses is as a substitute for natural gas, but at current price levels this is not economical.{{Citation]| url = http://www.ene.ttu.ee/maeinstituut/mgis/mapofhistory.htm| accessdate = 2007-07-21-->

Economics in US dollars, 2005-2007 (not adjusted for inflation).The various attempts to develop the world's oil shale deposits, over a period of over 150 years, have experienced successes when the cost of shale oil production in a given region was less than the price of crude oil or its other substitutes.{{cite paper| author = Robert Rapier| title = Oil Shale Development Imminent| publisher = R-Squared Energy Blog| date = 2006-06-12, a surface retorting complex (comprising a mine, retorting plant, upgrading plant, supporting utilities, and spent shale reclamation) is unlikely to be profitable in the United States until crude oil prices range between US$70 to US$95 per barrel (in 2005 dollars).Once commercial plants are in operation and experience-based learning takes place, costs are expected to decline in 12 years to US$35–US$48 per barrel. After production of 1,000 million barrels, costs are estimated to decline further to US$30 – US$40 per barrel.{{cite paper| publisher = [European Parliament has announced that its in-situ extraction technology in [Colorado could be competitive at prices over US$30 per barrel, while other technologies at full-scale production assert profitability at oil prices even lower than US$20 per barrel.{{cite web]| accessdate=2007-06-02-->{{Cite journal| last = Schmidt | first = S. J.| title = New directions for shale oil:path to a secure new oil supply well into this century: on the example of Australia| journal =Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal| publisher = Estonian Academy Publishers| volume =20| issue =3| pages = 333-346| year = 2003| url = http://www.kirj.ee/oilshale/7_schmidt_2003_3s.pdf| format = PDF| id = ISSN 0208-189X| accessdate = 2007-06-02-->{{cite web| publisher= United Press International| author= Leah Krauss| url= http://www.upi.com/Energy/view.php?StoryID=20061107-070924-5161r| title = Analysis: Israel sees shale replacing oil| date=2006-11-07 | place = Amman, Jordan| url = http://www.sdnp.jo/International_Oil_Conference/rtos-A114.pdf| format = PDF| accessdate = 2007-06-29-->

A critical measure of the viability of oil shale as an energy source is the ratio of the energy produced by the shale to the energy used in its mining and processing, a ratio known as "Energy Returned on Energy Invested" ([EROEI). A 1984 study estimated the EROEI of the various known oil shale deposits as varying between 0.7-13.3.{{Cite journal]| publisher = American Association for the Advancement of Science| volume = 225| issue = 4665| pages = 890-897| date = [1984-08-31.{{cite paper| title = Oil Shale Test Project. Oil Shale Research and Development Project| publisher = Shell Frontier Oil and Gas Inc.| date = [2006-02-15| accessdate=2007-08-27-->An additional economic consideration is the water needed in the oil shale retorting process, which may pose a problem in areas with water scarcity.

Environmental considerations The oil shale industry can have a negative impact on the surrounding environments, if the risks associated with it are not managed correctly. environmentalism concerns raised over the extraction of shale oil have caused the oil shale industry in some countries to come to a halt.{{cite web| url=http://www.greenpeace.org/australia/news-and-events/media/releases/climate-change/climate-changing-shale-oil-ind| title=Climate-changing shale oil industry stopped| author=Greenpeace Australia Pacific| date=2005-03-03 in [Australia resulted in its being put on hold in 2004.{{cite web]| accessdate=2007-10-20-->

Surface-mining of oil shale deposits has the same environmental impacts as those of open-pit mining. In addition, combustion and thermal processing generate waste material, and the atmospheric emissions include carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas. Experimental in-situ conversion processes and carbon capture and storage technologies may reduce some of these concerns in the future, but they may at the same time may cause other problems, including groundwater pollution.{{cite paper]| publisher=Association for the Study of Peak Oil & Gas - USA| date= 2006| accessdate=2007-06-28 -->

See also

Abiogenic petroleum origin
Bituminous coal
Core research center
Future energy development
Green River Basin
Mahogany research project
Mitigation of peak oil
Non-conventional oil
Oil reserves
Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program
Tar sands
World energy resources and consumption

Footnotes References

{{cite book

Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal. Estonian Academy Publishers. ISSN 0208-189X
Selected online oil shale publications by the U.S. Geological Survey
Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry article on oil shale (requires registration). Retrieved on 2007-08-04
{{cite book

{{cite web

27th Oil Shale Symposium
{{cite web

{{cite web

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